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Abstract

Effective classroom instruction refers to the application of the ‘‘teacher effectiveness’’ variables, that is, those variables that have been demonstrated to bear the strongest relation to student achievement. These variables include time on task, content coverage, pacing, scope and sequence, questioning, feedback, and praise. Systematic application of these elements has been demonstrated to increase academic achievement.

Outline

Introduction
Overview of Effective Classroom Instruction
Planning for Content Coverage
Using Effective Teaching Strategies
Promoting Effective Inclusive Instruction

1. Introduction

Researchers over the years have been interested in what makes a ‘‘good’’ teacher. Early investigations focused on nonalterable behaviors such as personality, gender, intelligence, and even style of dress. Later, research focused on curriculum comparisons (e.g., phonics vs look–say methods of teaching reading) to determine effective teaching. Over the past several decades, researchers began to examine alterable variables, that is, those variables that teachers could alter in themselves to improve student achievement. This ‘‘teacher effectiveness’’ literature, although not without its critics, has been instrumental in identifying how teachers can best engage students in instruction to maximize their learning. Some important variables identified by teacher effectiveness research are provided in Table I.

Teacher effectiveness research has sometimes been criticized for its supposed emphasis on teacher-determined (rather than student-generated) curricula, transmission of knowledge by direct instruction (rather than construction of knowledge by student discovery and inquiry), and pointed emphasis on achievement test scores as outcomes (rather than measures of affect, classroom tests, performance or portfolio assessments, etc.). However, it has also been suggested that the ‘‘effective instruction’’ variables are important regardless of the type of teaching, learning, or assessment that is being undertaken. For example, even when curricula are student generated, learning is inquiry based, and outcomes are measured with classroom performance assessments, it is important that students be actively engaged in relevant activities and instructional materials. Likewise, regardless of content or approach to instruction, it is important that students receive relevant feedback and praise for their positive efforts.

Effective Classroom Instruction Research Paper TABLE I Some Teacher Effectiveness Variables

2. Overview Of Effective Classroom Instruction

Effective teaching variables include those that involve planning for content coverage and that use effective teaching strategies. Planning for content coverage includes scope and sequence, objectives, curriculum, and pacing, whereas variables relevant to delivering instruction include maximization of academic engaged time, effective teacher presentations, appropriate use of practice activities, review, and formative evaluation.

Making effective use of these variables can help to maximize the performance of general education students as well as that of students with disabilities or other special needs.

3. Planning For Content Coverage

The importance of content coverage is obvious in that students almost certainly will not learn content or skills that have not been covered. Nevertheless, teachers vary greatly in planning for content coverage, and these differences are strongly related to student achievement. An important consideration in content coverage is that the amount and type of content covered must match the preskills and abilities of the students learning the content. Variables relevant to the general area of content coverage include objectives, scope and sequence, curriculum, and pacing.

Academic content is learned better if it is based on instructional objectives. Objectives state the desired outcomes of instruction so that the effectiveness of the instruction can be determined. Typically, an objective specifies (a) the content being addressed by the objective, (b) the conditions under which the student’s performance is to be assessed, and (c) the criteria established for acceptable performance. For example, consider the following objective: ‘‘The student will identify 5 homonyms from a list of 10 word pairs with 100% accuracy.’’ The content of the objective is homonyms, the conditions specify that students will be presented with a list of 10 word pairs, and the criterion for acceptable performance is identification (rather than production) with 100% accuracy. Another example of an objective is as follows: ‘‘The student will read four pages from the grade-level reading materials at a rate of 150 words per minute and will answer five comprehension questions with 100% accuracy.’’ This objective also specifies content, conditions, and criteria to be achieved.

Scope and sequence refer to the breadth and depth of content to be presented and the order in which the content will be presented. Scope and sequence considerations allow for long-term planning of instruction and can provide implications for time allocations and the overall pace of instruction through the curriculum. Scope and sequence of instruction can help to prevent instructional redundancy and can help to ensure that students have mastered prerequisite content or skills before learning new content. Most states have developed standards for learning across the curriculum areas as well as grade levels that are used to define the scope and sequences selected for use at the school and classroom levels. These state standards present the basic learning that is expected at each grade level in every subject area. For example, the state of Virginia has standards for learning from kindergarten through 12th grade in mathematics, science, English, history, and social sciences, and these subjects are then assessed on statewide achievement tests. These standards can be accessed on each state’s education department Web site.

The curriculum includes the instructional materials used for learning as well as the course of study and the scope and sequence within each grade level. The curriculum serves as an interface between the student and the learning objectives. Curriculum materials do not determine what instructional objectives will be; however, when they are used appropriately, they support and enhance the meeting of instructional objectives. For example, a teacher stating ‘‘Today we’ll cover Chapter 12’’ is not specifying an instructional objective but merely stating which curriculum will be employed. However, curricula do carry implications for how instructional content will be presented. For example, a ‘‘hands-on’’ science curriculum that includes materials for student construction of electromagnets and telegraphs implies a model of instruction that is very different from that of a curriculum that includes a textbook with a chapter on electromagnetism.

Curricula are most effective for a variety of learning needs when they are directly relevant to the learning objectives, are carefully sequenced, provide sufficient redundancy of key concepts, and contain relevant activities for teacher evaluation of student progress toward meeting objectives. The most effective curriculum materials are meaningful and relevant for all students, including male and female students and students from a variety of cultural backgrounds, and should include adaptations (or suggestions for adaptations) for students with disabilities or other special needs.

4. Using Effective Teaching Strategies

The most consistently identified teacher effectiveness variable is time on task. That is, the more time that students spend learning specific academic content, the better they will learn it. Distinction is made between allocated time on task (the time that teachers allocate to particular instructional activities) and engaged time on task (the time that students actually spend engaged in instruction). Although no consistent relation has been seen between allocated time on task and academic achievement, research has demonstrated that engaged time on task is positively related to academic achievement. Strategies for maximizing engaged time on task have been identified and include effectively managing transitions, avoiding digressions and other irrelevant verbalizations, and managing classroom behavior. Sometimes, teachers can improve student-engaged time on task by examining the amount of allocated time for class and monitoring their own teacher behaviors more closely. For example, teachers may find that they start classes 5 minutes late, end classes 5 minutes early, stop during the middle of class to search for relevant instructional materials, and stop to manage inappropriate classroom behaviors. Once such target areas are identified, teachers can design strategies to improve each area that will result in increasing the amount of student-engaged time on task during classes.

Effective teacher presentations have also been identified. Teachers maximize achievement when their presentations contain elements such as structure of lesson, clarity of teacher presentation, redundancy in emphasizing important concepts, and enthusiasm. Structure includes enlisting students’ attention, providing a lesson overview that includes lesson objectives, providing outlines of the lesson and indicating when transitional points occur, and summarizing and reviewing key points as the lesson proceeds. It is important that students be made aware of the structure and objectives of the lesson so that they will know what is to be accomplished and how it will be accomplished. For example, teachers who begin with statements indicating the order of the learning activities (e.g., ‘‘First, we will .. .,’’ ‘‘Second, we will be .. .,’’ ‘‘Finally, we will .. .’’) provide the structure for the lesson for all students. Clarity includes presenting clearly and directly to the point of the lesson, avoiding vague or unfamiliar terminology, and providing concrete understandable examples. All teacher dialogue should be directly pertinent to the objective of the lesson. Redundancy does not refer to unnecessary repetition; rather, it refers to reemphasis and restating of the key elements of a lesson, particularly significant concepts and rules. Redundancy refers to the provision of multiple opportunities to practice learning newly presented content. Additional practice opportunities can vary in format and length given that the goal is to provide students with many chances to practice learning new information. Many students not only benefit from redundancy but also require redundancy prior to mastering new content. Teacher enthusiasm helps to maintain students’ attention and helps to model a positive attitude toward learning. Components of teacher enthusiasm include appropriate body movements and gestures, animated facial expressions, vocal inflections, positive acceptance of relevant student contributions, and a high overall display of positive energy.

Teachers also can increase achievement when they teach at an appropriate rate of presentation and when they maximize active student engagement with instruction or instructional materials. Selecting an appropriate rate of instruction not only is very important but also can be very challenging for teachers during the current era of statewide high-stakes testing. For example, if it is apparent that students have not learned a concept, it becomes necessary to back up and reteach that concept. This may require taking an additional class period or more depending on the students and the knowledge level required. The challenge for teachers is to ensure that all necessary content is covered before the end of the school year.

During teacher presentations, appropriate use of feedback and verbal praise is also associated with higher achievement. For example, praise that acknowledges student effort, specifies what the student did to merit praise, and demonstrates the association between effort and achievement is positively related to student achievement. Another important characteristic of praise is that it be genuine.

Following teacher presentation, guided and independent practice activities are associated with long-term learning and academic achievement. Guided practice activities are conducted under teacher supervision until it is certain that students are able to proceed independently. Students undertake independent practice activities when the students have demonstrated acquisition of skills or concepts being taught and need independent practice to further reinforce learning. With both guided and independent practice, instructional tasks and materials must be directly relevant to instructional objectives.

Overall, a model of effective instruction for an individual lesson includes daily review, statement of objective, teacher presentation, guided practice, independent practice, and evaluation of learning objectives. Weekly and monthly review activities are also related to long-term learning and retention of important concepts.

5. Promoting Effective Inclusive Instruction

Research has supported the use of teacher effectiveness variables with students with special learning needs as well as with normally achieving students. In inclusive classrooms (i.e., classrooms in which students with special needs are included with normally achieving students), use of teacher effectiveness variables has been seen to increase learning for all students. In inclusive classes, awareness of the range of student needs is even more important, and consideration of the effective classroom instruction variables can guide teachers’ instructional decision making.

Many of the teacher effectiveness variables have a direct impact on the characteristics of students with special learning needs. For example, because time is an important mediator of achievement, maximized time on task can directly address students who are having difficulty in assimilating academic content. Structure, clarity, and redundancy in teacher presentations can be directly beneficial to students who have difficulty in sustaining attention as well as to those who do not grasp new concepts quickly. Enthusiasm is helpful for students who are less motivated to succeed in school, and appropriate rate (or pace) of presentation of information and maximized engagement can be critical variables for those who must maximize efficiency to make adequate progress. Frequent review and evaluation can help to determine whether instruction was successful and when further intervention is needed.

Teacher effectiveness variables have also proven to be useful as a model for addressing specific learning problems. For example, if a student is having particular difficulty in mastering specific academic content, teachers can consider whether certain variables can be adjusted. That is, teachers can increase the amount of engaged time on task, or they can adjust the rate of presentation or overall pace of instruction for meeting instructional objectives. Likewise, they can adjust their teacher presentations, the rate of presentation, or student engagement. Practice and review activities can also be adjusted. By attending to these alterable variables, student learning in inclusive settings can be addressed.

References:

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